Resources

Jonathon Osborne, King’s College London
Sara Hennessy, University of Cambridge

The full version of this review is available to download in pdf format - see box below. On this page you'll find the executive summary.

Executive summary

Why does science education matter?

Science education has its roots in the recognition by Victorian society that it had changed – changed from an agrarian society to one dominated by, and reliant on, scientific and technological expertise. In1851, the Great Exhibition brought the realisation that this new society could only be sustained by ensuring that a body of people were educated in science and technology. However, whilst there was little disagreement about the necessity for incorporating science into the curriculum, the form and content of that science education has since that time been a matter of considerable debate.

The opposing camps have lain between, on the one hand, those who would emphasise the need for science education to develop a knowledge and understanding of the basic scientific principles – the foundation on which the edifice rests – and, on the other, those who would argue for an emphasis on the processes of scientific thinking. The latter contend that the value of science education lies in the critical and evaluative habits of mind it develops that are of ubiquitous value for all individuals in all domains.

A retrospective view shows that as a rule, the dominant model of the curriculum has been one which has seen science education as a pre-professional form of training for the minority of today’s youth who will become the scientists of tomorrow. This characteristic has arguably been responsible for the undervaluing of science within the British establishment who have historically regarded it as a lesser form of knowledge than the humanities which, in contrast, were often seen as offering an education of the complete individual.

Current research would suggest, however, that there are four common rationales for science education:

• the utilitarian: the view that a knowledge of science is practically useful to everyone. However this view is increasingly questionable in a society where most technologies are no longer remediable by any one other than an expert
• the economic: the view that we must ensure an adequate supply of scientifically trained individuals to sustain and develop an advanced industrial society
• the cultural argument: the view that science and technology are one, if not the greatest, achievement of contemporary society, and that a knowledge thereof is an essential prerequisite for the educated individual
• the democratic: the argument that many of the political and moral dilemmas posed by contemporary society are of a scientific nature. Participating in the debate surrounding their resolution requires a knowledge of some aspects of science and technology. Hence, educating the populace in science and technology is an essential requirement to sustain a healthy democratic society.

The changing context

Two factors have led to calls for change in the nature of school science education.

a. The changing relationship between science and society. The past 30 years have seen a transformation in society’s view of science. 30 years ago, the then Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, was able to offer a vision of the ‘white heat of the technological revolution’, men were landing on the moon, and iconic symbols such as Concorde heralded a new dawn. In contrast, today, after a long litany of environmental and technological disasters such as Chernobyl, global warming, ozone depletion, Bhopal, BSE and more, science is seen as a source of threat as well as a source of solutions.

In addition, recent research has transformed our understanding of science by highlighting the ways in which culture and values impact upon the development of scientific ideas and practices. The perception of scientific progress today is, therefore, more ambivalent than 30 years ago both in terms of its ‘impacts’ on society, and in terms of its claims to act as a value-neutral domain.

b. In the 1980s, the economic case for science education was successful in arguing that science should be a compulsory part of all school science curricula in many countries across the globe. The outcome, however, was the imposition of a model of science education designed for the small minority of children who would go on to become scientists. In recent years, however, it has been increasingly argued that compulsory science education can only be justified if it offers something of universal value to all. Hence, in the last decade the democratic and cultural arguments have come to the fore to argue that a complete science education should give a much more holistic picture of science, concentrating less on the details and more on the broad explanatory themes that science offers. In addition, a much more comprehensive treatment of a set of ideas about how science is done, evaluated and functions is required.

The most significant product of this debate so far has been the development of a new AS curriculum entitled Science for Public Understanding which has attempted to articulate a model of school science which meets these two challenges. This course addresses a collection of themes in the life science and physical sciences through a set of topics which cover the major ideas of science, ideas about data and explanations, the social influences on science and technology, causal links, risk and risk assessment, and decisions involving science and technology. This model is now being extended to the GCSE curriculum with the development of a pilot scheme – 21st Century Science – a course which will consist of a similar, but simplified core, and then a set of optional modules for those who wish to continue with the more academic or applied
science.

Meeting the challenge of change

The changes embodied in these courses are radical. Traditionally school science has ignored any treatment or exploration of its nature as such knowledge is considered to be either largely irrelevant to its contemporary practice, or to be best acquired en passant. Hence, the pedagogy of school science has tended to be didactic, authoritarian and non-discursive with little room for autonomous learning or the development of critical reasoning. In addition, science teachers, themselves the product of the standard model of science education, often have naïve views about the nature of science. Teaching about science rather than teaching its content will require a significant change in its mode of teaching and an improved knowledge and understanding in teachers.

The potential role of ICT in transforming teaching and learning

While there are changes in the views of the nature of science and the role of science education, the increasing prevalence of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) also offers a challenge to the teaching and learning of science, and to the models of scientific practice teachers and learners might encounter. ICTs, for example, offer a range of different tools for use in school science activity, including:

• tools for data capture, processing and interpretation – data logging systems, databases and spreadsheets, graphing tools, modelling environments
• multimedia software for simulation of processes and carrying out ‘virtual experiments’
• information systems
• publishing and presentation tools
• digital recording equipment
• computer projection technology
• computer-controlled microscope.

These forms of ICT can enhance both the practical and theoretical aspects of science teaching and learning. The potential contribution of technology use can be conceptualised as follows:

• expediting and enhancing work production; offering release from laborious manual processes and more time for thinking, discussion and interpretation
• increasing currency and scope of relevant phenomena by linking school science to contemporary science and providing access to experiences not otherwise feasible
• supporting exploration and experimentation by providing immediate, visual feedback
• focusing attention on over-arching issues, increasing salience of underlying abstract concepts
• fostering self-regulated and collaborative learning
• improving motivation and engagement.

ICT use and pedagogy - an inextricable link

Current research would suggest, however, that it is not appropriate to assume simply that the introduction of such technologies necessarily transforms science education. Rather, we need to acknowledge the critical role played by the teacher, in creating the conditions for ICT-supported learning through selecting and evaluating appropriate technological resources, and designing, structuring and sequencing a set of learning activities. Pedagogy for using ICT effectively includes:

• ensuring that use is appropriate and ‘adds value’ to learning activities
• building on teachers’ existing practice and on pupils’ prior conceptions
• structuring activity while offering pupils some responsibility, choice and opportunities for active participation
• prompting pupils to think about underlying concepts and relationships; creating time for discussion, reasoning, analysis and reflection
• focusing research tasks and developing skills for finding and critically analysing information
• linking ICT use to ongoing teaching and learning activities
• exploiting the potential of whole class interactive teaching and encouraging pupils to share ideas and findings.

The reality of ICT use in the school science lab

Teachers’ motivation to use ICT in the classroom is, at present, adversely influenced by a number of constraints including: lack of time to gain confidence and experience with technology; limited access to reliable resources; a science curriculum overloaded with content; assessment that requires no use of the technology; and a lack of subject-specific guidance for using ICT to support learning. While this technology can, in principle, be employed in diverse ways to support different curriculum goals and forms of pedagogy, such constraints have often stifled teachers’ use of ICT in ways which effectively exploit its interactivity. Consequently, well-integrated and effective classroom use of ICT is currently rare. Research shows that even where technology is available, it is often underused and hindered by a set of practical constraints and teacher reservations. Whole class interactive teaching is also under-developed. At present, effective use of ICT in science seems to be confined to a minority of enthusiastic teachers or departments.

On the whole, use of ICT in school science is driven by – rather than transformative of – the prescribed curriculum and established pedagogy. In sum, teachers tend to use ICT largely to support, enhance and complement existing classroom practice rather than re-shaping subject content, goals and pedagogies. However, teacher motivation and commitment are high and practice is gradually changing. The New Opportunities Fund (NOF) scheme for training teachers in using ICT in the classroom appears to have had more success in science than in other subjects. Teachers are now beginning to develop and trial new strategies which successfully overcome the distractions of the technology and focus attention, instead, on their intended learning objectives.

To conclude, teachers are currently working towards harnessing the powerful potential of using ICT to support science learning as far as possible, given the very real operational constraints. Further development depends on providing them with more time, consistent access to reliable resources, encouragement and support, and offering specific guidance for appropriate and effective use. Assessment frameworks (and their focus on end products) may also need to change in order to evaluate – and thereby further encourage – ICT-supported learning.

Conclusion

To meet the new aims for science education, the science curriculum is poised to move in a new direction. The approach taken by the proposed new science curriculum for all pupils is eminently well-suited to the supportive use of interactive digital technology. As the school curriculum begins to forge links with the external scientific and social communities, opportunities arise for ICT use to play a central and core role in supporting development of scientific reasoning and critical analysis skills. Those in the process of developing new digital tools for use in the science classroom need, therefore, to engage with the new aims of science education and the science curriculum, and to develop resources that can be used by teachers both in facilitating key aspects of scientific thinking and in building bridges between schools and with the wider social and scientific communities.

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